Modern and Post Modern Rhetoric: Intro

This chapter mainly outlined the importance and lack there of, rhetoric in the 20th century. Rhetoric was debated by many critiques. Some valued its importance, while others argued its lack of importance to English studies.

Rhetoric and Composition:
In the late 19th century to the early 20th century, people valued the current-traditional studies. This emphasized expository writing, modes of discourse, grammar, and style. The early 20th century self-expression. This soon came to be known as creative writing. Creative writing took importance at different times throughout the 20th century.

Speech Communication
Though rhetoric wasn't always taught in public speaking classes, it did have a place. Most public speaking teachers favored lessons of presenting knowledge and the current-traditional lessons, rhetoric was being used. Later on in the 20th century, graduate classes began to focus on theory and tradition. Part of the curriculum in the graduate study classes was the historical studies of rhetors and orators.

Philosophy of Language vs Rhetoric
Garver believed language was conceived on logic rather than rhetoric. He argued the lack of importance rhetoric had on language and it's lack of importance in general.

Lit., Logic, Rhetoric, and Ethics
Aristotle divided rhetoric and poetic. He revealed the differences and similarities of the two.
-Rhetoric: Active Goal
-Literature: Contemplative Goal
He thought that poetic concerned only feelings and rhetoric only action.

Burke argues, "lit. is unequivocally a form of persuasive discourse and is therefore governed by rhetoric"... this upset people who wanted to keep rhetoric and poetic divided.

Rhetoric vs Logic
Rhetorics of gender, race, and culture in the 20th century --> more educated women

The reach of Rhetoric
20th century theories of rhetoric - formulating relationships between language and knowledge.
 

Delivery: Attending to the Eyes and Ears

Even though ancient rhetors didn't think that delivery was very important, and that discourse was more important, I beg to differ that they didn't value delivery.

Ancient rhetors were looking to give speeches that would attract their listeners. In order to do this, they had to appeal to the eyes and ears. Part of oral delivery is using different tools including pitch to attract the ears of their listeners. Ancient rhetors may no have known it, but delivery was a large part of their speeches and the ability it had to reach their audience.

Another thing I found interesting in this chapter was visual rhetoric. I had never thought about the value of punctuation. It's interesting that ancient Greeks didn't use punctuation. I can't imagine reading lines without knowing exactly where to take a breath.

Delivery is extremely important in written and oral rhetoric.

Style + Vico + Sheridan

ARCS Ch 10- Style: Composition and Ornament

Ancient rhetors used the term "style" when referring to the art to unusual uses or arrangement of words.

The chapter further discusses the composition of sentences and the different types of speech that are used. Some of these include similes, metaphors, tropes, and etc. Basically, it talks about the different styles and ornaments that are used and are appropriate in a different situations.

RT- Vico is regarded as a reactionary because of his opposition to the thoughts and teachings of Descartes. Vico proposed that there are three stages through which human history evolved: the poetic, the heroic, and the human stage. The poetic stage was when "knowledge was generated by metaphor", the heroic stage was when "nations developed, promulgating, rigid systems of law to preserve the organization of society. The human stage was when "the self-conscious study of human knowledge lead to greater equity in law and democracy in politics.

RT- Sheridan is famous for his lectures. He was motivated by linguistic self-improvement and educational reform. He agreed with Locke that "language is the medium of reason, so voice and gesture are 'the natural language of the passions'". Sheridan's lectures appeal to science, reference for the ancients, linguistic anxiety, and morality.

Enlightenment Rhetoric + Locke + Astell

Enlightenment during the 17th-18th centuries when there were revolutions in science, philosophy, and politics. This had a great affect on the principles of rhetoric, as well as language and communication.

The logic of rhetoric changed. Scientists were calling for style to be used by rhetoricians that was clear and plain.

Francis Bacon made a change in rhetoric that had to do with psychology. He thought that rhetoric should appeal to its audience mentally. This proved to be a powerful tool.

The Elocution Movement during the 18th - 19th centuries,  focused on delivery, correctness, verbal, and non-verbal cues.

"the rhetorical theories of the Enlightenment are intimately linked to the intellectual and social developments that shaped the modern world" (RT 792)

John Locke powerfully affected the direction of rhetoric by his force in the development of modern philosophy. One of his beliefs was that people need to know the process to which they come to know new knowledge in order to truly know it.

Mary Astell was a woman writer. She is known as one of the first feminists. She thought women should become educated and unite together to improve their situation.

Essay II: Long term cultural effects of the printing press

Essay II                                                                                               Alexandria Suhadolnik

Rhetoric                                                                                              October 18, 2011

Printing Press: Its Long-Term Cultural Effects

                The art of rhetoric becoming more widespread through written language can be attributed to Johannes Gutenberg’s invention of the printing press in 1440. Without the printing press, the world wouldn’t have undergone cultural changes made possible by improved communication through written word. Being able to take manuscripts and mass-produce them into print was not the only effect of the Gutenberg’s printing press. Its effects radically changed the cultures of the western world. Cultural effects due to the printing press included the spread of knowledge, religious reformation, and nationalism. The printing press acted like a throttle, accelerating the spread of rhetoric, giving it a new audience that no longer depended primarily on oral speeches. Value was placed on print and its ability to permeate efficiently and effectively

            Since its appearance, the effects of the printing press have been evaluated by many intellectuals. One of its critics included Elizabeth Eisentein, an author and American historian of the French Revolution. Eisentein was a prominent assessor and critic of the press’s effects on culture. She published books including, The Printing Press as an Agent of Change. Her book analyzed the effects of the printing press on technology and thus on cultural change in Europe. An article analyzing the works of Eisentein stated that her book argues, “print has been recognized as the transformative force in and on history: the history of ideas, religion, and politics” (Sharpe 245). The article elaborates that Eisentein described how the printing press indirectly affected culture, but rather the changes and improvement in technology had direct long

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term effects. Eisentein analyzed the long term effects of the printing press and how it fostered the change in western culture over time. Her book differs from the works of other critiques on the

printing press, because it focuses more on long-term indirect effects of the printing press rather than the direct effects that arose immediately after its invention. Eisentein places a large importance on new immergences of technology on the constant changing world. She argues that technology dramatically effects culture in both positive and negative ways. Her books give analyzing the effects of the printing press a new lens to investigate other important aspects of change that weren’t limited to obvious byproducts like the ability to copy ancient manuscripts.

            The printing press played a significant role in the spread of knowledge. It allowed historic manuscripts and modern articles to be multiplied quickly using a machine. Initially, the rise in literacy became prominent; it was then followed by the spread of knowledge. An article states, “Initially, literate Europeans directed their efforts toward recovering past wisdom” (Rosalto 513). People placed importance on works of ancient intellectuals and rhetors. They were adamant about getting the historical works copied to preserve them and spread them and educate a new audience. The printing press did have negative consequences. Some of the historic manuscripts were copied with errors. Some print contained errors as well as truth. Eisentein addressed this problem in her book by explaining that the information being printed had not yet been sorted out. An article analyzing the works of Eisentein stated, “putting the written word into print certainly facilitated the spread of knowledge. But more critical than the diffusion of single texts was the fact that individual scholars had more works available to them than their predecessors” (Rosalto 510). After much of the classical works were printed and made more

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accessible, modern scholars of that time were able to access the older information, change it, and add their own information to it, hence the rise of independent thought. Rhetors, for example, were able to study the works of ancient rhetors, analyze their thoughts, and either argue or add to

the classical works. Before, people relied on the works of classical intellectuals to be educated. New literature changed the curriculum of education and gave rise to independent thought. The ability to spread new ideas quickly through print, gave people an education that included both historical and modern ideas, making them more rounded and independent thinking individuals. Currently, students are able to study the works of ancient rhetors that may not have been possible without their preservation in the 16^th century. For example, students are able to study the rhetoric ideas of Aristotle and Socrates. Being educated using ancient as well as modern material gives students a better idea of history they may not of had if the curriculum lacked the wide range of text.

            Change in religion during the 16^th century, also known as the Protestant Reformation, was caused by written rhetoric and its accessibility made possible by the printing press. Before the reformation, the Catholic Church and its leaders had control over European religious thought. People relied on the catholic religious leaders to educate them about biblical ideas, how to live a just life, and what they should be contributing to the church. Religious thought changed dramatically with the new value placed on independent thought. Independent thinkers, including Martin Luther, utilized the ability to print and changed the religious views of many people around him. On October 31, 1515, during the attempt to reform the Catholic Church, Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the church. Martin Luther was concerned with the actions of the pope and church, the idea of indulgences, and many other acts committed by the

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church and its leaders. His oral rhetoric used in his speeches was heard by a number of people, but his written pamphlets distributed to a greater geographic area made his ideas more well-known and affective. Luther used the ability to print mass amounts to his advantage. His

pamphlets were spread through Europe to permeate his protestant beliefs. Luther also made changes to texts of the traditional bible and discounted parts of the Old Testament. He gained many followers and his lack of satisfaction toward the Catholic Church was contagious. In her book, Elizabeth Eisentein described the reformation as the power of the press. The ability to spread information gave independent thinkers like Martin Luther, a larger and more diversified audience than if he were only to spread his rhetoric through speeches. Religion and Christianity was and continues to impact the culture of the western world. According to a Catholic education website, a recent study showed that about 33% of the world is Christian and a Christian statistics site says that 30% of Christians are Protestant. Therefore, a large number of people continue to adhere to the teachings of Martin Luther. Considering the great influence the bible and its teachings have on its audience, Luther’s revised bible left a long lasting legacy, affecting the people of his time and continues to influence protestant religions to this day. The ability to spread written rhetoric gave power to Martin Luther that continues to affect religious culture almost 500 years after he posted his 95 Theses on the door of the Catholic church.

            The printing press gave a rise to nationalism that hadn’t been as pronounced. One of the effects of the printing press was that language, spelling, grammar, and syntax became more consistent. The consistency of language gave rise to different languages for different regions resulting in nationalism for one’s own culture. The ability to spread ideas through print ushered in independent thinking. The spread of independent thinking and nationalism made cultures more

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consistent with its members having more understanding of the values and norms of their societies. Another effect of the printing press that gave rise to nationalism was the ability to draw lines to create borders around the different regions of Europe. With the ability to make borders and make them known through written communication, members of each region gained a sense of nationalism for the region that inhabited. There was less dependence on leader’s oral rhetoric concerning devotion to their homeland. Written rhetoric had the ability to educate a larger audience making geographic location of its listeners less of an issue. Written language that could be spread quickly, brought people in different areas together giving them a sense patriotism that hadn’t been as rampant before the effects of the printing press.

            The invention of the printing press had short and long term effects. It made the availability of written rhetoric, including independent thought more accessible and wide spread. Before the ability to distribute written rhetoric effectively and efficiently through pamphlets, newspapers, books, and other literature, people relied on oral rhetoric to learn about history and gain perspective on current events. With the availability of new print technology, rhetors were able to spread their knowledge, thoughts on religion, and nationalism easily and quickly. The power of written language gave way to new thought that would continue to shape the minds of its audience and change the culture of the western world.

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Works Cited

Rosalto, Renato. “The Cultural Impact of Written Word: A Review Article.” Comparative

            Studies in Society and History 23.3 (1981): 513. JSTOR.

Sharpe, Kevin. “Print, Polemics, and Politics in Seventeenth-Century England.” Journal of

            British Studies 14.2 (2002): 245. JSTOR.

“Statistics on Religion in America.” The Pew Forum on Religion and Public Life. The Pew

            Research Center, 2010. Web. 26 Oct 2011. < http://religions.pewforum.org/reports>.

Weigel, George. “World Religions by the Numbers.” Catholic Education Resource Center. 2002.

            Web. 26 October 2011. < http://www.catholiceducation.org/articles/facts/fm0010.html>.

Chapter 9: Arrangement

When begining this chapter, I found the different opinions about arrangement when comparing ancient and modern rhetors to be interesting.

Ancient rhetors weren't very concerned with arrangement. Rather, they were more concerned with determining what kind of audience they had to decide how to deliver their argument/speech. They ancient rhetors were concerned with the context, or the rhetorical situation.

Sophists had 4 parts of arrangement: "prooemium (intro), narration (statement of the issue), proof, and conclusion" (294).

Aristotle only thought there were 2 parts necessary: "a statement of the case and proof" (294).

Cicero believed in 6 parts: "exordium (intro), narratio (statement of issue), partitio (division of the issue into parts), confirmatio (where strongest arguments are made), refutatio, and peroratio (conclusion)" (294).

In more modern times, we are very concerened with arrangement. Generally, a modern speech has an intro, body, and conclusion.

Exordium- Introduction. Rhetor establishes an ethos. Cicero argues that it should be "dignified and serious". There are different kids of cases that require different kinds of exordiums.

Topics for making Audience Attentive and Receptive:
Attentive: 1) show importance of issue 2) show how issue affects audience 3) show how issue affects everyone 4) show how issue affects general good of community.

Receptive: 1) strengthen your ethos 2) weaken ethos of those who oppose rhetor 3) show respect for audience 4) praise issue or position while denigrating position of opponents

Chapter 8: Extrinsic Proofs + RT: Margret Fell & Thomas Wilson

Chapter 8- Extrinsic Proofs: Arguments Waiting to be Used

Aristotle divided proofs into two kinds:

·         Intrinsic- must be invented by a rhetor.

·         Extrinsic- don’t need to be invented by rhetor. They include realistic evidence.

Extrinsic Proofs in Ancient Rhetorics

·         Cicero defined them as testimony.

·         Not always reliable.

·         Written work needs to be interpreted and not taking for face value. Therefore, not always reliable.

·         Laws, are a good example of something that needs to be interpreted.

Testimony

·         Persons who have nothing to gain when testifying are more credible than those to profit by doing so. – Aristotle

·         Ancient Rhetor’s never took someone’s testimony for face value.

·         Community and Proximate Authories

Community Authorities - Peoples whose words or actions have earned them given respect within a community.

·         Ancient and recent witnesses.

Evaluating Community Authorities

·         Credibility and accuracy

·         Some scholars disagree with one another

Proximate Authorities – “statements by people who were physical present at an event”

·         Often thought to be a reliable source.

·         Evaluations of the ability of the source to testify about the event are taken into consideration.

·         The worth of the testimony has to pass several tests.

Introduction of Law

·         Is the law clearly written and consistent with itself?

·         Is it expedient and can it be enforced?

RT- Margret Fell

Argued that during the Renaissance, women’s sense of themselves changed for the better.

·         Social Condition- women to be educated and use their education.

·         Could use rhetorical knowledge in public.

·         Renaissance women felt more empowered.

o   Political and religious issues.

·         Quaker women spoke in public on social issues

Margret was a prolific writer (750).

Main point- women began speaking up in the church.


RT: Thomas Wilson

Wrote a few books

·         The Rule of Reason- talks about dialectic and logic. Much of the same ideas as Aristotle.

·         The Arte of Rhetorique- first American book to deal with invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery.